Dictionary Definition
Epicurean adj
1 of Epicurus or epicureanism; "Epicurean
philosophy"
2 devoted to pleasure; "a hedonic thrill"; "lives
of unending hedonistic delight"; "epicurean pleasures" [syn:
hedonic, hedonistic]
3 furnishing gratification of the senses; "an
epicurean banquet"; "enjoyed a luxurious suite with a crystal
chandelier and thick oriental rugs"; "Lucullus spent the remainder
of his days in voluptuous magnificence"; "a chinchilla robe of
sybaritic lavishness" [syn: luxurious, sybaritic, voluptuary, voluptuous] n : a person
devoted to refined sensuous enjoyment (especially good food and
drink) [syn: epicure,
gourmet, gastronome, bon vivant,
foodie]
User Contributed Dictionary
English
Pronunciation
- ep`i*cu*re"an
Synonyms
Noun
- one who is devoted to pleasure
Usage notes
Modern accepted use of the terms epicurean and Epicureanism refers often to the appreciation of, and indulgement in, good food (gourmet), luxury, hedonism, and sensual pleasure. This strays significantly from the original philoposhic intent of Epicureanism. The philosophy indeed elevated pleasure and happiness as the most worthy pursuit, but specifically warned against fine food and frequent sex, for it could lead to dissatisfaction later. Instead, the goal was a long-term pleasure, marked by serenity and temperance, achieved through moderation rather than indulging. Modern senses of gourmet, luxury, hedonism, sensual pleasure and lust are mostly in contrast with the original ancient teachings.Extensive Definition
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the
teachings of Epicurus (c.
341–c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus
was an atomic materialist, following in
the steps of Democritus. His
materialism led him
to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention.
Following Aristippus—about
whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the
greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a
state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) as well as absence of
bodily pain (aponia)
through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of
our desires. The combination of these two states is supposed to
constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is
a form of hedonism,
insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good, its
conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its
advocacy of a simple life make it quite different from "hedonism"
as it is commonly understood.
For Epicurus, the highest pleasure (tranquility
and freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship, and
living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of
simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires,
such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism. He argued that
when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to
dissatisfaction later, such as the grim realization that one could
not afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise, sex could lead
to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner.
Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that
has survived.
Epicureanism was originally a challenge to
Platonism, though
later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus
and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus,
his school was headed by Hermarchus;
later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic
era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria,
Rhodes and
Ercolano).
The poet Lucretius is its
most known Roman proponent. By the end of the Roman Empire it had
all but died out, and would be resurrected in the 17th century
by the atomist Pierre
Gassendi, who adapted it to the Christian doctrine.
Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some
scholars consider the epic poem
On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to
present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of
Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa
of the Papyri at Herculaneum are
Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the
Epicurean Philodemus.
History
The school of Epicurus, called "The Garden," was based in Epicurus' home and garden. It had a small but devoted following in his lifetime. Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves, and were probably vegetarians (Stevenson 2005).The school's popularity grew and it became, along
with Stoicism and
Skepticism, one
of the three dominant schools of Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting
strongly through the later Roman
Empire. In Rome, Lucretius was the
school's greatest proponent, composing
On the Nature of Things, an epic poem, in
six books, designed to recruit new members. The poem mainly deals
with Epicurean philosophy of nature. Another major source of
information is the Roman politician and amateur philosopher
Cicero,
although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as
unbridled hedonists,
devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing
from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes
of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in
Lycia.
A library, dubbed the Villa
of the Papyri, in Herculaneum,
owned by Julius
Caesar's father-in-law,
Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, was preserved by the
eruption of Vesuvius in
79 CE, and was
found to contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a
late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the
school's enduring popularity. The task of unrolling and deciphering
the charred papyrus
scrolls continues today.
After the official approval of Christianity
by Constantine,
Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus' materialist theories that
the gods were physical beings composed of atoms who were
unconcerned with human affairs and had not created the universe,
and his general teaching that one's own pleasure, rather than
service to God, was the greatest good were essentially
irreconcilable with Christian teachings. The school endured a long
period of obscurity and decline.
The early Christian writer Lactantius
criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine
Institutes. In Dante's Divine
Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering
in the sixth circle of hell. The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature
is "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס), and Epicurus is titled in Modern Greek
idiom as the "Dark Philosopher".
By the 16th
century, the works of Lucretius and Diogenes Laertius were
being printed in Europe. In the 17th century
the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre
Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism.
Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter
Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English.
Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge
Platonists.
In the following times, there was a resurgence of
Epicurean philosophy: in the Modern
Age, scientists adopted atomist theories, while materialist philosophers
embraced Epicurus' hedonist ethics and restated his objections to
natural teleology.
Religion
Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of the
gods, that they do not interfere with human lives. It states that
gods, matter and souls are all comprised of atoms. Souls are made from atoms,
and gods possess souls, but their souls adhere to their bodies
without escaping. Humans have the same kind of souls, but the
forces binding human atoms together do not hold the soul forever.
The Epicureans also used the atomist theories of Democritus and
Leucippus
to assert that man has free will. They held that all thoughts are
merely atoms swerving randomly. This explanation served to satisfy
people who wondered anxiously about their role in the universe. The
Riddle of Epicurus or Epicurean
paradox is the earliest known description of the Problem of
evil, and is a famous argument against the existence of an
all-powerful and providential God or gods. As translated by
David
Hume in the
Dialogues concerning Natural Religion:
If God is willing to prevent evil, but is not
able to Then He is not omnipotent.If He is able, but not
willingThen He is malevolent.If He is both able and willingThen
whence cometh evil?If He is neither able nor willingThen why call
Him God?
Epicurus did not, however, deny the existence of
gods. Fully aware of the fate of Socrates when
brought up on a charge of impiety, Epicurus avoided expressing an
overt atheism. Rather,
he conceived the gods as blissful and immortal yet material beings
made of atoms inhabiting the metakosmia: empty spaces
between worlds in the vastness of infinite space. In spite of his
nominal recognition of the gods, the practical effect of this
materialistic explanation of the gods' existence and their complete
non-intervention in human affairs renders his philosophy atheistic
on a practical level, but avoids the charge of atheism on the
theoretical level. In Dante's Divine
Comedy, the flaming tombs of the Epicureans are located within
the sixth circle of hell (Inferno, Canto XI). Similarly, according
to Jewish Mishnah, Epicureans
(apiqorsim, people who share the beliefs of the movement) are among
the people who do not have a share of the "World-to-Come"
(afterlife or the world of the Messianic
Era).
Parallels may be drawn to Buddhism, which
similarly emphasizes a lack of divine interference and aspects of
its atomism. Buddhism
also resembles Epicureanism in its temperateness, including the
belief that great excesses lead to great dissatisfaction.
The philosophy originated by Epicurus flourished
for seven centuries. It propounded an ethic of individual pleasure
as the sole or chief good in life. Hence, Epicurus advocated living
in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible
during one’s lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid
the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure. The
emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on
physical pleasures. Therefore, according to Epicurus, with whom a
person eats is of greater importance than what is eaten.
Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to
be suppressed. Since learning, culture, and civilization as well as
social and political involvements could give rise to desires that
are difficult to satisfy and thus result in disturbing one’s peace
of mind, they were discouraged. Knowledge was sought only to rid
oneself of religious fears and superstitions, the two primary fears
to be eliminated being fear of the gods and of death. Viewing
marriage and what attends it as a threat to one’s peace of mind,
Epicurus lived a celibate life but did not impose this restriction
on his followers.
The philosophy was characterized by an absence of
divine principle. Lawbreaking was counseled against because of both
the shame associated with detection and the punishment it might
bring. Living in fear of being found out or punished would take
away from pleasure, and this made even secret wrongdoing
inadvisable. To the Epicureans, virtue in itself had no value and
was beneficial only when it served as a means to gain happiness.
Reciprocity was recommended, not because it was divinely ordered or
innately noble, but because it was personally beneficial.
Friendships rested on the same mutual basis, that is, the pleasure
resulting to the possessors. Epicurus laid great emphasis on
developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life.
While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal
point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static
pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact
Epicurus referred to life as a “bitter gift”.
The Epicureans believed in the existence of the
gods, but believed that the gods were made of atoms just like
everything else. It was thought that the gods were too far away
from the earth to have any interest in what man was doing; so it
did not do any good to pray or to sacrifice to them. The gods, they
believed, did not create the universe, nor did they inflict
punishment or bestow blessings on anyone, but they were supremely
happy; this was the goal to strive for during one’s own human
life.
Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism;
it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as
the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while
still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to
us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that
which lacks sensation is nothing to us." Bertrand
Russell critiques Epicureanism's conception of death:
Epicurean ethics
Epicurus was an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement "neither to harm nor be harmed." The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just. He gave his own unique version of the Ethic of Reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others:It is impossible to live a pleasant life without
living wisely and well and justly (agreeing 'neither to harm nor be
harmed').And it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly
without living a pleasant life.
Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full
account of the social
contract theory, following after a vague description of such a
society in Plato's Republic. The
social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on
mutual agreement, not divine decree.
Epicurean physics
Epicurus' philosophy of the physical world is found in Letter to Herodotus: Diogenes Laertius 10.34-83.If a limited form lives within an unlimited
void, the form could only wander aimlessly about, because what is
unlimited is ungraspable; meaning, the limited form would travel
forever, for it does not have any obstacles. The void would have to
be limited in quality and the form of an unlimited quality, for an
unlimited form can oscillate and seemingly grasp—practically, but
not literally—an unlimited number of spots within the limited void.
So therefore all living things on Earth are unlimited, and the
Earth on which they live and the universe around it, is limited.
(Compare the concept of the
finite universe in modern cosmology.)
Forms can change, but not their inherent
qualities, for change can only affect their shape. Some things can
be changed and some things cannot be changed because forms that are
unchangeable cannot be destroyed if certain attributes can be
removed; for attributes not only have the intention of altering an
unchangeable form, but also the inevitable possibility of
becoming—in relation to the form’s disposition to its present
environment—both an armor and a vulnerability to the its
stability.
Further proof that there are unchangeable forms
and their inability to be destroyed, is the concept of the
“non-evident.” A form cannot come into being from the void—which is
nothing; it would be as if all forms come into being spontaneously,
needless of reproduction. The implied meaning of “destroying”
something is to undo its existence, to make it not there anymore,
and this cannot be so: if the void is that which does not exist,
and if this void is the implied destination of the destroyed, then
the thing in reality cannot be destroyed, for the thing (and all
things) could not have existed in the first place (as Lucretius
said, ex
nihilo nihil fit: nothing comes from nothing). This totality of
forms is eternal and unchangeable. [Compare the modern
Law of Conservation of Mass-Energy.]
Atoms move, in the
appropriate way, constantly and for all time. [Compare the modern
theory of particle
physics.] Forms first come to us in images or
“projections”--outlines of their true selves. For an image to be
perceived by the human eye, the “atoms” of the image must cross a
great distance at enormous speed and must not encounter any
conflicting atoms along the way. [Compare the modern theory of
light as being composed of subatomic
particles called photons.] The presence of atomic
resistance equal atomic slowness; whereas, if the path is deficient
of atomic resistance, the traversal rate is much faster (and
clearer). [Compare the modern concept of the speed of
light and refraction.] Because of
resistance, forms must be unlimited (unchangeable and able to grasp
any point within the void) because, if they weren't, a form's image
would not come from a single place, but fragmented and from several
places. This confirms that a single form cannot be at multiple
places at the same time. [Compare
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle.]
And the senses warrant us other means of
perception: hearing and smelling. As in the same way an image
traverses through the air, the atoms of sound and smell traverse
the same way. This perceptive experience is itself the flow of the
moving atoms; and like the changeable and unchangeable forms, the
form from which the flow traverses is shed and shattered into even
smaller atoms, atoms of which still represent the original form,
but they are slightly disconnected and of diverse magnitudes. This
flow, like that of an echo, reverberates (off one's senses) and
goes back to its start; meaning, one’s sensory perception happens
in the coming, going, or arch, of the flow; and when the flow
retreats back to its starting position, the atomic image is back
together again [Compare the modern theory of sound.]: thus when one smells
something one has the ability to see it too [because atoms reach
the one who smells or sees from the object.]
And this leads to the question of how atomic
speed and motion works. Epicurus says that there are two kinds of
motion: the straight motion and the curved motion, and its motion
traverse as fast as the speed of thought. [Compare the modern
theory of the speed of
light.]
Epicurus proposed the idea of 'the space between
worlds' (metakosmia)
the relatively empty spaces in the infinite void where worlds had
not been formed by the joining together of the atoms through their endless
motion. [Compare the modern concepts of interstellar
and intergalactic
space.]
Epicurean epistemology
Epicurean epistemology has three criteria of truth: sensations (aesthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê). Prolepsis is sometimes translated as "basic grasp" but could also be described as "universal ideas": concepts that are understood by all. An example of prolepsis is the word "man" because every person has a preconceived notion of what a man is. Sensations or sense perception is knowledge that is received from the senses alone. Much like modern science, epicurean philosophy posits that empiricism can be used to sort truth from falsehood. Feelings are more related to ethics than Epicurean physical theory. Feelings merely tell the individual what brings about pleasure and what brings about pain. This is important for the Epicurean because these are the basis for the entire Epicurean ethical doctrine.According to Epicurus, the basic means for our
understanding of things are the ‘sensations’ (aestheses),
'concepts' (prolepsis), ‘emotions’ (pathe)
and the ‘focusing of thought into an impression’ (phantastikes
epiboles tes dianoias).
Epicureans reject dialectic as confusing
(parelkousa) because for the physical philosophers it is sufficient
to use the correct words which refer to the concepts of the world.
Epicurus then, in his work On the Canon, says that the criteria of
truth are the senses, the preconceptions and the feelings.
Epicureans add to these the focusing of thought into an impression.
He himself is referring to those in his Epitome to Herodotus and in
Principal Doctrines.
The senses are the first criterion of truth,
since they create the first impressions and testify the existence
of the external world. Sensory input is neither subjective nor
deceitful, but the misunderstanding comes when the mind adds to or
subtracts something from these impressions through our preconceived
notions. Therefore, our sensory input alone cannot lead us to
inaccuracy, only the concepts and opinions that come from our
interpretations of our sensory input can. Therefore our sensory
data is the only truly accurate thing which we have to rely for our
understanding of the world around us.
The concepts are the categories which have formed
mentally according to our sensory input, for example the concepts
"man", "warm", and "sweet", etc. These concepts are directly
related to memory and can be recalled at any time, only by the use
of the respective word. (Compare the anthropological Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis). Epicurus also calls them "the meanings that
underlie the words" (hypotetagmena tois phthongois: semantic
substance of the words) in his letter to Herodotus. The feelings or
emotions (pathe) are related to the senses and the concepts. They
are the inner impulses that make us feel like or dislike about
certain external objects, which we perceive through the senses, and
are associated with the preconceptions that are recalled.
Apart from these there is the assumption
(hypolepsis), which is either the hypothesis or the opinion about
something (matter or action), and which can be correct or
incorrect. The assumptions are created by our sensations, concepts
and emotions. Since they are produced automatically without any
rational analysis and verification (see the modern idea of the
subconscious) of
whether they are correct or not, they need to be confirmed
(epimarteresis: confirmation), a process which must follow each
assumption.
Referring to the "focusing of thought into an
impression" or else "intuitive understandings of the mind", they
are the impressions made on the mind that come from our sensations,
concepts and emotions and form the basis of our assumptions and
beliefs. All this unity (sensation – concept or category – emotion
– focusing of thought into an impression) leads to the formation of
a certain assumption or belief (hypolepsis). (Compare the modern
anthropological
concept of a "world view".)
Following the lead of Aristotle,
Epicurus also refers to impressions in the form of mental images
which are projected on the mind. The "correct use of impressions"
was something adopted later by the Stoics. Our
assumptions and beliefs have to be ’confirmed', which actually
proves if our opinions are either accurate or inaccurate. This
verification and
confirmation (epimarteresis) can only be done by means of the
"evident reason" (henargeia), which means what is self-evident and
obvious through our sensory input.
An example is when we see somebody approaching
us, first through the sense of eyesight, we perceive that an object
is coming closer to us, then through our preconceptions we
understand that it is a human being, afterwards through that
assumption we can recognize that he is someone we know, for example
Theaetetus. This assumption is associated with pleasant or
unpleasant emotions accompanied by the respective mental images and
impressions (the focusing of our thoughts into an impression),
which are related to our feelings toward each other. When he gets
close to us, we can confirm (verify) that he is Socrates and not
Theaetetus through the proof of our eyesight. Therefore, we have to
use the same method to understand everything, even things which are
not observable and obvious (adela, imperceptible), that is to say
the confirmation through the evident reason (henargeia). In the
same way we have to reduce (reductionism) each
assumption and belief to something that can be proved through the
self-evident reason (empirically verified). Verification
theory and reductionism have been
adopted, as we know, by the modern philosophy
of science. In this way, one can get rid of the incorrect
assumptions and beliefs (biases) and finally settle on the
real (confirmed) facts.
All the above mentioned criteria of knowledge
form the basic principles of the [scientific] method, that Epicurus
followed in order to find the truth. He described this method in
his work On the Canon or On the Criteria. (Based on excerpt from
Epicurus' Gnoseology 'Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to
the Stoics Analysis and Fragments', Nikolaos Bakalis, Trafford
Publishing 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5.
Tetrapharmakos
Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is Epicurus' basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines:Notable Epicureans
One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, as he showed in his De Rerum Natura.Julius
Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism and rejected the
idea of an afterlife, which e.g. lead to his plea against the death
sentence during the trial against Catiline, where he
spoke out against the Stoic Cato.
In modern times Thomas
Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean, and the preamble
to the United States
Declaration of Independence demonstrates Epicurean influence by
inalienable right of life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.
Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter
Charleton, François
Bernier, Saint-Evremond,
Ninon de
l'Enclos, Diderot,
and Jeremy
Bentham. Christopher
Hitchens has referred to himself as an Epicurean.
Karl Marx made
Epicurus the subject of his doctoral thesis. His teachings are
still followed today by Homerton College, Cambridge University, who
have named a successful social society after him: "The
Epicureans".
Modern usage and misconceptions
In modern popular usage, an epicure is a
connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual
pleasures; epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment
especially of good food and drink—see the definition of
gourmet at
Wiktionary.
This can be attributed to a misunderstanding of
the Epicurean doctrine, as promulgated by Christian polemicists.
Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good
(telos), it is commonly misunderstood as a doctrine that advocates
the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as constant partying,
sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus
regarded ataraxia
(tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the
height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important
virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to
the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.
Possible relationship to "Apiqoros" in Judaism
In the Jewish exegetical tradition, the word "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס) appears in Rabbinical literature as a reference to those who lack religion or are ostensibly atheistic. Its origins are uncertain, but it may have originally referred specifically to the Epicurean philosophy, although it eventually came to refer to any philosophy lacking a God or a spiritually based morality. It is also occasionally used to describe heretic principles or heretics themselves. The word is still used in modern Hebrew, mainly among religious Jews.External links
Notes
References
- Stevenson, Jay. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Philosophy. 3. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, Penguin Group, 2005.
- Howard Jones, The Epicurean Tradition, Routledge, London 1989.
- Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge University Press, 1987. (ISBN 0-521-27556-3)
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Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
Cyrenaic, Heliogabalus, Sardanapalus, amateur, appetitive, arbiter, arbiter elegantiarum,
arbiter of taste, authority, bent on pleasure,
bon vivant, carnal,
carpet knight, cognoscente, collector, connaisseur, connoisseur, crapulent, crapulous, critic, dilettante, dissipated, dissolute, epicure, eudaemonic, expert, fun-loving, gluttonous, good judge,
gourmand, gourmet, hedonic, hedonist, hedonistic, immoderate, intemperate, judge, libidinous, luscious, lush, luxurious, luxury-loving,
maven, orgiastic, overindulgent, piggish, pleasure-bent,
pleasure-loving, pleasure-seeker, pleasure-seeking, porcine, refined palate,
self-indulgent, sensual,
sensualist, sensuist, swine, swinish, sybarite, sybaritic, unchaste, unconfined, unrestrained, virtuoso, voluptuary, voluptuous, wild